Uttar Pradesh, earlier christened as United Provinces in the year 1937 by the British regime was renamed as Uttar Pradesh in 1950. Uttar Pradesh is located in the north-central Gangetic plains of India between 23°52’N and 31°28’N latitudes and 77°3′ and 84°39’E longitudes. With an area of 29.4 m ha it is the fourth largest state in the Indian subcontinent and the most populous State. It shares its national boundaries with 9 other states i.e., Himachal Pradesh, Delhi, and Haryana on the northwest; Uttarakhand in the north; Rajasthan shares boundary with Uttar Pradesh in the west; Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh on the south; Jharkhand to the south-east and Bihar lies in the east. Uttar Pradesh is landlocked in the north by Nepal. The state of Uttar Pradesh constitutes a total of 18 divisions and 75 districts, whose northern portion was carved out in the year 2000 to form Uttarakhand, the 27th state of India. Geomorphologically, Uttar Pradesh can be divided into 3 major topographical regions viz., Siwalik foothills and Terai region, Gangetic Plains, Vindhya Range, and Plateau Region. Siwalik Range forms the southern foothills of the Himalayas bordering the state on the north. The lowland area dispersed with marshes, thick forests, swamps rich in clay, and tall grasslands that run parallel to the Bhabhar tract which is called as is called Terai region. This area is composed of fine alluvium primarily sand, clay, silt, and gravel. The Gangetic plains constitute the major central portion of the state span about three-fourths of the total area of the state, stretching from east to west and covering most of its central portion, which is predominantly characterized by a flat topography and highly fertile alluvial soil. The topography of the Gangetic plains comprises several physical features like rivers, lakes, and ponds, ranging from 60 mts in the east to 300 mts in the northwest and a gradient of 2 m/sq km. The two-river systems called The Ganges which include Ganga and Yamuna and their tributaries, that flow down the Himalayas, is responsible for laying in alluvial deposits which make the soil of the Gangetic plains highly fertile and suitable for growing crops like rice, wheat, barley, gram, etc. The Vindhya Range and Plateau lie in a relatively smaller part of the southern region of the state and are a discontinuous range of hills and mountains. The southernmost stratum of Gangetic plains is rendered by hard and varied topography of hills, highlands, and plateaus. With an average elevation of 300 mts, this is a low-lying range that receives sparse rains and is devoid of adequate water resources, thus, farmers in this region resort to dry farming.
River System
Rivers are not only the lifeline of a region but also play a significant role in shaping the socio-economic and cultural fabric of a place. Uttar Pradesh is well drained by a number of rivers originating in either the Himalayas to the north or the Vindhya Range to the south. The Ganges and its main tributaries, the Yamuna, the Ramganga, the Ghaghara, and the Gandak rivers are fed by the perpetual snows of the Himalayas, whereas river Gomati originates from Madho Tanda in Pilibhit district from the groundwater and finally joins river Ganga in Varanasi. The Chambal, the Betwa, and the Ken, originating from the Vindhya Range, drain the southwestern part of the state before joining the Yamuna. The Son, also originating in the Vindhya Range, drains the southeastern part of the state and joins the Ganges beyond the state borders in Bihar. These rivers not only provide water for irrigation but also serve as a means of transport, a source of livelihood, and a place of religious significance. The major drainage regions of Uttar Pradesh can be broadly classified into four regions based on their respective river systems. These are:
Ganga Basin is the largest drainage region in Uttar Pradesh, covering about two-thirds of the state's area. It comprises the Ganga and its major tributaries like Yamuna, Ghaghara, and Gomti. This region is known for its fertile alluvial plains and is home to some of the most populous cities in the state, including Varanasi, Allahabad, and Kanpur.
Betwa Basin is located in the southern part of Uttar Pradesh and covers the districts of Hamirpur, Jalaun, and Lalitpur. The main river in this basin is the Betwa, which is a major tributary of the Yamuna. This region is characterized by hilly terrain, with some areas being covered by forests.
Son Basin is situated in the southeastern part of Uttar Pradesh and covers the districts of Sonbhadra and Mirzapur. The Son River, which originates in Madhya Pradesh and flows through this region, is the main river in this basin. The region is hilly and is home to a number of wildlife sanctuaries and national parks.
Gomti Basin is located in the central part of Uttar Pradesh and covers the districts of Lucknow, Sitapur, and Faizabad. The Gomti River, which flows through this region, is a major tributary of the Ganga. The region is characterized by fertile alluvial plains and is known for its rich cultural heritage.
Soil
Much of the area of Uttar Pradesh is covered by a deep layer of alluvium spread by the slow-moving rivers of the Ganges system. Those extremely fertile alluvial soils range from sandy to clayey loam. The soils in the southern part of the state are generally mixed red and black or red-to-yellow. A deep layer of alluvium is deposited by the Ganges and its tributaries as they flow down the Himalayas.
The Terai is a lowland region that runs parallel to the south of Bhabar and is made of new alluvium. The soil here is sand and clay, this soil is suitable for the cultivation of wheat, rice, sugarcane, jute, etc. This makes the region swampy lowland with silty soils.
Soils of Gangetic Plains develop from the alluvium beds deposited by the Ganga, Yamuna, and their tributaries. These are coarse loamy/fine loamy/fine silty (calcareous and non-calcareous). These feature slight alkalinity and exhibit deep soil depth as well as high content of organic matter, and plant nutrients. They have a good water-holding capacity and are well-drained. The major crops cultivated in the alluvial soil of Gangetic plains are wheat, rice, sugarcane, gram, maize, sorghum, barley, and pea.
Vindhyan and plateaus region exhibits hilly terrain and arid conditions. Soils in this region are generally developed from Vindhyan rocks that include gneiss, granites, sandstone, quartzite, limestone, dolomite, etc. The soils of this region possess mixed red and black hues and this is fine loamy with stoniness and gravelliness. These are slightly alkaline in nature, are excessively drained, and have Low Available Water Capacity. The major crops of this region are Wheat, Sorghum, Bajra, Gram, and Arhar.
Climate
The climate of Uttar Pradesh is tropical monsoon type, with dry winters. State witnesses three distinct seasons namely Winter, Summer, and Monsoon. As Gangetic plains take up a majority of the area in the state, therefore climatic conditions are more or less uniform throughout the state, except for a few regional fluctuations. The summer season spans from March to mid of June with high temperatures (40℃ – 48℃), hot and dry, dust-laden storms, and low relative humidity. The westerly winds are predominant in the area and become strong at the onset of summer. The hot dry winds (loo) are very common from the middle of April up to the end of May. Later on, these winds are replaced by easterly winds that become prevalent during the rainy season. Monsoon season is prevalent from June to September with warm wet weather. The temperature ranges from 32 -38°C and this period brings most of the monsoon rainfall annually. The annual rainfall in the state ranges from 40–80 inches (1,000–2,000 mm) in the east to 24–40 inches (600–1,000 mm) in the west. About 90 percent of the rainfall occurs during the southwest monsoon, lasting from about June to September. Winter Season exists from October to February and the days and nights are generally cold and foggy with the temperature dropping up to 0℃ – 4℃. The month of January has been recorded as the coldest month with a mean maximum temperature of 23°C and a mean minimum temperature of 6°C. Frost is common in the forests and grasslands and it becomes very severe from December to the middle of February.
Population
Uttar Pradesh is the most populous state in India with a population of about 199.81 million, which is 16.50% of India’s population as per the 2011 census. The urban and rural populations constitute 22.27% and 77.73%, respectively. The peripheral regions of Uttar Pradesh, are home to a number of tribal communities such as Agaria, Aheria, Baiga, Bind, Beldar, Bhoksa/ Buksa, Bind, Chero, Ghasia, Gond, Kol, Korwa, Panika, Saharia, Tharu, etc. and some of them have been recognized as Scheduled Tribes by the Government of India. Each of these communities has its unique culture, traditions, and way of living, making Uttar Pradesh a most diverse and vibrant state.
Forest Types and Vegetation
The forests hold a key position in representing the major ecological habitats for organisms on the earth and structuring the ecosystem for providing valuable ecosystem services to mankind and other organisms. The forests are considered the lungs of the earth’s system because they detoxify the environment and provide oxygen for the survival of the organisms. Due to its varied climate and ecological conditions, Uttar Pradesh has a rich plant wealth, adding to the abundance of natural resources in the state, despite widespread deforestation and poaching. The recorded forest area (RFA) in the State is 16,582 sq. km of which 12,070 sq. km is Reserved Forest, 1,157 sq. km is Protected Forest and 3,355 sq km is Unclassed Forest. The reserve, protected, and unclassed forests are 72.79%, 6.98%, and 20.23% of the recorded forest area in the State, respectively. In Uttar Pradesh, during the period from 1st January 2015 to 5th February 2019, a total of 163.76 hectares of forest land was diverted for non-forestry purposes under the Forest Conservation Act, of 1980 (MoEF & CC, 2019). Based on the interpretation of IRS Resourcesat-2 LISS III satellite data of the period from October 2017 to January 2018, the Forest Cover in the State is 14,805.65 sq. km which is 6.15 % of the State's geographical area. In terms of forest canopy density classes, the State has 2,616.43 sq. km under Very Dense Forest (VDF), 4,080.04 sq. km under Moderately Dense Forest (MDF), and 8,109.18 sq. km under Open Forest (OF). Forest Cover in the State has increased by 126.65 sq. km as compared to the previous assessment reported in ISFR 2017.
The terai and bhabhar area in the Gangetic Plain has most of the forests while the Vindhyan forests consist mostly of scrub. A significant woodland formation in the State is called Sal. In the State, forests are primarily found in the northern and partially in the southern regions. Due to its predominant agricultural use, the central region of Uttar Pradesh lacks any forest vegetation. A few districts with maximum forest cover area are Sonbhadra (2540.29 sq. km), Lakhimpur Kheri (1273.06 sq. km), Mirzapur (803.73 sq. km), and Pilibhit (687.11 sq. km), whereas minimum forest cover area is observed in Sant Ravidas Nagar (3.12 sq. km), Mau (11.00 sq. km), Mainpuri (13.64 sq. km) and Sant Kabir Nagar (14.00 sq. km). On the basis of Champion and Seth Classification of Forest Types (1968), and other published literature on the vegetation of Uttar Pradesh (Kanjilal, 1933; Panigrahi & Saran, 1967; Roy, 1996; Srivastava, 2004, 2011; Singh et al., 2016) the existing flora in Uttar Pradesh can be classified into six categories:
1. Tropical moist deciduous forests:
These forests are found in areas receiving an annual average rainfall of 100 to 150 cm and temperature ranges between 26℃ to 28℃ with considerable humidity. Such forests are found in Bhabar and Terai regions which include Bahraich, Shravasti, Maharajganj, Pilibhit, etc. districts of the state. These forests are having different vegetation depending upon the prevailing regional conditions of soil, temperature, rainfall, and topography. Trees are dominant due to high humidity and the main components are, Aegle marmelos, Bombax ceiba, Dalbergia sissoo, Haldina cordifolia, Lagerstroemia parviflora, Miliusa tomentosa, Mitragyna parviflora, Phyllanthus emblica, Terminalia alata, T. bellirica, Toona ciliata, etc. At some places these forests are dominated by Shorea robusta, making pure patches of Sal Forest. It is a very fast-growing species that occupies the top canopy. The understory of these forests is represented by shrubs like Calotropis gigantea, C. procera, Clerodendrum cordatum, Carrisa spinarum, Leea asiatica, etc. alongwith climbers and lianas like Ampelocissus latifolia, Cissampelos pareira, Naravelia zeylanica, Pericampylus glaucus, Tiliacora acuminata, Tinospora cordifolia, Ventilago denticulata, etc., Some grasses are also represented in these forests making the ground flora like, Apluda mutica, Cymbopogon martini, Miscanthus fuscus, Oplismenus burmannii, Phragmitis karka, Saccharum sponteanum, etc. with herbs like Afrohybanthus enneaspermus, Biophytum sensitivum, Cleome gynandra, Corchorus capsularis, Polygala erioptera, Ranunculus sceleratus, Rorippa indica, etc.
2. Tropical dry deciduous forests
These forests flourish in areas receiving rainfall between 50 to 100 cm. The main regions of these forests are the plains of Ganga, Yamuna, and their tributaries. These forests are found in all parts of the plains and usually in Eastern, Central, and Western regions which include Lucknow, Raebareli, Unnao, and Ghaziabad, districts of the state having soil with good water holding capacity. Large tracts of these forests have been cleared for cultivation. Most of these forest patches have been conserved as reserved forests by Forest Department. As compared to moist deciduous forests, the canopy of these forests is open and clear so that sufficient sunlight reaches the ground flora due to which they grow luxuriantly. Three-storied forests are characterized by deciduous trees, shrubs mixed with climbers and lianas, and seasonal herbs. Important trees of these forests are Anogeissus latifolia, Boswellia serrata, Butea monosperma, Buchanania lanzan, Diospyros malabarica, Holorrhena pubescens, Lannea coromandelica Madhuca longifolia, Senegalia catechu, Syzygium cumini, Tamarind indica, etc., shrubs like Buddleja asiatica, Ixora pavetta, Murraya koenegii, Helicteres isora, Justicia adhatoda, Nyctanthus arbor-tristis, Ziziphus mauritiana, grow with the climbers, Abrus precatorius, Aristolochia bracteolata, Cissampelos pariera, Canavalia gladiata,Gymnema sylvestre, Mucuna pruriens, etc. Herbaceous flora is found mainly in rainy season on open moist places and includes Anisomeles indica, Argemone mexicana, Boerhavia diffusa, Clerodendrum cordatum, Hyptis suaveolens, Ocimum basilicum, Tribulus terrestris, etc.
3. Tropical thorny forests
These forests grow in areas receiving low annual rainfall from 50 to 75 cm and mean annual temperature ranges between 25℃ to 27℃ with low humidity (less than 47%). These forests have widely scattered thorny trees, mainly babool, thorny legumes, and spurge. Southern Uttar Pradesh including Mirzapur, Jhansi, Lalitpur, Mahoba, Chitrakoot, Banda, Jalaun is covered with these forests. The trees are generally small forming open dry forests. During rains, short grasses also grow here. Acacia modesta, Azadirachta indica, Grewia tiliifolia, Leucena latisiliqua, Prosopis juliflora, Senegalia catechu, Woodfordia fruticosa, etc. are important tree species of these forests. Various types of resin and gum are obtained from these trees. Shrubs intermixed with climbers are represented by Flacourtia indica, Grewia rothii, Abrus precatorius, Momordica dioca, Gymnema sylvestre, Zizyphus mauritiana, Z. nummularia etc. In some drier areas, xerophyllous species like Capparis decidua, Dichrostachys cinerea, Maerua oblongifolia, Balanites roxburghii, etc. are found. Some grasses are also reported in these forests such as Arthraxon hispidus, Brachiaria ramosa, Eragrostis ciliaris, Cenchrus ciliaris, etc.
4. Ravine Forests
The ravines are characterized by the dominance of thorny vegetation and are classified as Northern tropical ravine thorn forests (Champion and Seth, 1968). In Uttar Pradesh, these forests are found in Bundelkhand, Mathura, Agra, and Etawah regions where the climate is semi-arid and average rainfall is low ranging from 250-750 mm, and are erratic in nature. The ravine forests occur along the rivers Yamuna, Ken, Gomti, and Kholas in Uttar Pradesh. The climate, topography, and soil of the ravine region are typically harsh and thus adversely affect the composition and growth of vegetation. These ravine areas are facing heavy biotic pressure mainly for agriculture expansion, fuelwood, and fodder. The vegetation is composed of trees like Acacia catechu, A. leucophloea, Alhagi maurorum, Anogissus pendula, Balanites aegyptica, Capparis decidua, Carissa carandas, Dalbergia sisso, Diospyros melanoxylon, Holoptelea integrifolia, Pedulium murex, Prosopis juliflora, Sterculia urens, Tribulus terrestris, Withania sominifera, Zizyphus mauritiana, etc., shrubs such as Balanites roxburghii, Mallotus philippensis, Maerua oblongifolia, Mimosa himalayana, alongwith climbers, Capparis zeylanica, Combretum nanum, Cissampelos pareira, Coccinia grandis, Mukia maderspatans, etc. Herbs are represented by Amaranthus viridis, Anagallis arvensis, Bacopa monneiri, Cleome viscosa, Commelina benghalensis, Convolvulus arvensis, Crotalaria burhia, Eclipta prostrata, Gloriosa superba, Launea procumbens, Leucas cephalotes, Mentha spicata, Physalis mimima, Sida cordata etc. Among grasses, commonly found species are Apluda mutica, Desmostachys bipinnata, Cynodon dactylon, Heteropogon contortus, Oplismenus burmannii, Polypogon plebium, Tragus monoglorum, etc.
5. Swamp Forests
Swamp forests are commonly found along the rivers and other water bodies. They are formed by the stagnation of rainwater in low-lying areas. In Uttar Pradesh, these forests are present in Bahraich, Gorakhpur, Lakhimpur Kheri, and Pilibhit districts. The black soil of these forests is made up of fine clay and is rich in humus. The main components of these forests are Barringtonia acutangula, Callicarpa macrophylla, Ficus racemosa, Ficus hispida, Haldina cordifolia,Mallotus nudiflorus, Melochia corchorifolia, Pentapetes phoenicea, Putranjiva roxburghii, Rosa clinophylla, Syzygium cuminii, Terminalis arjuna, etc. Among shrubs, Ardisia solanacea, Ficus heterophylla, Eranthemum pulchellum and among herbs Cenetlla asiatica, Bacopa monnieri, Cnidium monnieri are commonly found species. Few grasses such as Chionachne gigantean, Chrysopogon lawsonii, Panicum paludosum, Phragmites karka, Saccharum bengalense, S. spontaneum, etc. have also been reported.
6. Grasslands
The grasslands are important in maintaining and sustaining wildlife by providing shelter as well as food and fodder to the animals. Apart from this they also provide pioneer habitats to early colonizing plant members during successional processes in plant communities and their role in balancing the ecosystems is also very impressive in terms of micro and macro-habitat maintenance and regulation of nutrient cycle in open and closed ecosystems. Tall wet grasslands in the northern alluvial flood plains of the river Ganges are popularly known as Terai grasslands. Although, few grasslands are found in forest clearing areas throughout the Gangetic plains. Terai region of Uttar Pradesh is a moist deciduous forest dominated by Shorea robusta interspersed with numerous swamps and tall, wet grasslands dominated by Saccharum, Narenga, Sclerostachya, Imperata , and Typha species. These grasslands are maintained by silt deposited by the yearly monsoon floods. Important grasses include Tripidium bengalense and Saccharum spontaneum, which quickly establishes itself after the retreat of monsoon water. The common species of these forests are Apluda mutica, Avena fatua, Bothriochloa kuntzeana, Bothriochloa pertusa, Brachiaria ramosa, Capillipedium assimile, Chloris barbata, Chrysopogon aciculatus, Cymbopogon flexuosus, Dendrocalamus strictus, Desmostachya bipinnata, Digitaria ciliaris, Echinochloa colona, Eragrostis atrovirens, E. viscosa, Eulalia leschenaultiana, Heteropogon contortus, Imperata cylindrical, Ischaemum rugosum, Oplismenus burmanni, Paspalidium flavidum, Pennisetum polystachion, Phragmites karka, Saccharum narenga, Setaria glauca, Setaria verticillata, Sorghum nitidum, Themeda arundinacea, Vetiveria zizanioides, etc. This belt also contains riverside tropical deciduous forest comprising of Garuga pinnata, Mallotus philippensis, Mallotus nudiflorus, Leea macrophylla, Syzygium cuminii, etc.
